Before I Was Born (God’s Design for Sex) by Carolyn Nystrom Essay

Carolyn Nystrom †¢ Illustrated by Sandra Speidel Before I †¦ THE GOD’S DESIGN FOR SEX SERIES Sample from Before I Was Born / ISBN 9781600060144 Copyright  © 2008 NavPress Publishing. All rights reserved. †¦ God’s Design for Sex is a series of books you can read with your children at ages three to five, five to eight, RESOURCE LIST: SEX EDUCATION – Focus on the Family: Helping †¦ GOD’S DESIGN FOR SEX BOOK 2: BEFORE I WAS BORN by Carolyn Nystrom †¦ sex, why sex should be shared only in marriage, what the Bible says about sex, and much more. GOD’S DESIGN FOR SEX BOOK 4: †¦ ) n 3 # W – Toronto Chinese Christian Parenting Association †¦ 049 Before I was Born (God’s Design for Sex Ages 5 to 8) Carolyn Nystrom 050 †¦ 088 The ABC’s of Handling Money God’s Way Howard & Bev Dayton let’s talk about it – Bible Fellowship Church Ages 5-8 God’s Design for Sex Series: Before I Was Born by Stan Jones Ages 8-11 God’s Design for Sex Series: What’s The Big Deal? Why God Cares About Sex by Stan Jones Books for Teens Every Young Man’s Battle: Strategies for Victory in the Real Bibliography of Books on Sexuality for Children and Parents conservative Christian â€Å"God’s Design for Sex† series is designed to help young adolescents to understand and deal with the changes †¦ Before I was Born. Illustrated by Sandra Speidel. Navpress, 2007. The second book in the â€Å"God’s Design for Sex† series, written Sex Education in the Christian Family The God’s Design For Sex Book Series How And When To Tell Your Kids About Sex is a handbook for parents; the four children’s books are designed †¦ Before I Was Born (Book 2 for ages 5 to 8) by Carolyn Nystrom What’s The Big Deal? Why God Cares About Sex †¦ Purity, Dating and Courtship Resource List God’s Design for Sex – resource pack Book #1: †¦ – Stan and Brenna Jones Book #2: Before I Was Born (ages 5-8) – Carolyn Nystrom Book #3: What’s the Big Deal – Why God Cares About Sex (ages 8-11) †¦ Before You Meet Prince Charming How can young people be committed to purity and to †¦ How to Talk to Your Kids About Sex Hiding God’s Word in one’s heart will enable your children to make wise decisions in †¦ Start with the God’s Design for Sex Series by Stan and Brenna †¦ How to Talk to Your Kids About Sex (ages 3-5); Before I Was Born (ages 5-8); What’s the Big Deal: Why God Cares About Sex Pastor Keith Missel * Prior Lake Campus * December 14, 2011 Thinking Right About God’s Design:God’s Design: Gender . is good. †¦ Before they had gone to bed, all the men from every part of the city of Sodom—both young and old— †¦ so that we can have sex with them. †¦ Parents & Kids, Talking About Sex  © God’s Design for Sex Series – Encourages healthy communication between parents and children as it helps parents answer in age-appropriate terms the difficult or embarrassing questions about †¦ Before I Was Born (Ages 5-8) by Carolyn Nystrom, IBSN 08910-98445 What the Bible says about those of the same sex. imosexuality part of God’s original s ho design? Did God create homosexuality? †¦ homosexuality was not a part of God’s design. ae people today born homosexuals?r What about the person who asks, †¦ before, as I have also told you in time past, †¦ 1 â€Å"Sex on the brain, pumped in my veins, flowing from my Few things we need to clarify before we go any further†¦ 1. †¦ hands of a warrior are sons born in one’s youth. 5 †¦ Sex according to God’s design is only to happen between a man and a women within the confines of marriage†¦ Why Marriage is the Union of a Man and a Woman before the Australian Parliament aims to change the current definition of marriage to allow same sex †¦ in which children are to be born and raised. God’s design is that sexual union is not only an †¦ Other passages deal with sex before marriage (Deuteronomy 22:13-21), prostitution †¦ people to dwell on their relationship with God. Your role is †¦ discovering and owning the truths of God’s Word. †¦ â€Å"I was born gay.† What we allow through our complacency today, will be celebrated by our children tomorrow. †¦ indicate about God’s design for gender/sexuality, marriage and sex? 7. God’s Design—Your Choice – Global Reach 75 God’s Design—Your Choice UNIT STUDENT REPORTS AND ANSWER SHEETS STUDENT REPORT DIRECTIONS When you have completed your study of each unit, ? ll out the answer sheet for that unit. Title A Baby Costs $785 a Month, How Much is Your Allowance †¦ Before I Was Born: Designed for Parents to Read to Their Child at Ages 5 Through 8 (Gods Design for Sex) Begin With Love: †¦ (God’s Design for Sex, Book 3) What’s the Big Secret?: Talking about Sex with Girls and Boys When Teens Have Sex: Issues and Trends Kid County Special Report SEX EDUCATION RESOURCES – Focus on the Family GOD’S DESIGN FOR SEX BOOK 1: THE STORY OF ME by Stan and Brenna Jones (NavPress) †¦ GOD?S DESIGN FOR SEX BOOK 2: BEFORE I WAS BORN by Carolyn Nystrom (Navpress) †¦ BORN IN GRACE applied to all of God’s handiwork. †¦ school. As students assembled before class, boys in one line and girls in another, Larry often found himself standing between the two rows: †¦ anatomical sex are simply born that way. †¦ Same Sex Marriage: P-R-O-B-L-E-M-S and P-R-O-M-I-S-E-S for †¦ Same Sex Marriage: P-R-O-B-L-E-M-S and †¦ For us to believe that all who claim to be homosexual are simply born that way is for †¦ First Corinthians chapters 6 and 7; and Jude. When Jesus talks about God’s design for marriage in Mark chapter 10, He refers to Genesis chapter 2. Title: Baker †¦ A Baby Costs $785 a Month, How Much is Your Allowance †¦ Before I Was Born: Designed for Parents to Read to Their Child at Ages 5 Through 8 (Gods Design for Sex) Begin With Love: †¦ (God’s Design for Sex, Book 3) What’s the Big Secret?: Talking about Sex with Girls and Boys When Teens Have Sex: Issues and Trends Kid County Special Report. Have To Say About It†¦. each other and the opposite sex. I see the men keeping occupied with the †¦ (God’s) design for you. Did you know, woman, that †¦ know, not just what those before you know? It happens in yourself and that Child Safety Bibliography Before I Was Born. Navpress. †¦ Book 2 of the series â€Å"God’s Design for Sex† for ages 5-8. Training Children -http://www.focusonthefamily.com/parenting/sexuality/talking_about_sex /talking_to_your_kids_about_sexual_abuse.aspx †¦ â€Å"Ask Before You Hug: Sexual Harassment in the Church† When God’s Good Gifts are Defiled: The Sinner and The †¦ prodigal lives before our God. †¦ 34.6 percent of babies were born to unmarried women, with the avaerage age of unwed mothers increasing with each passing year †¦ God’s holy design for sexuality is being splattered like a bug on a windshield. Something . 3 Premise Christians are commanded by their God to love their †¦ discussion of same sex marriage and the Christian †¦ We are all equally guilty before God. We all are natural born sinners – born with the sin of Adam within our hearts. †¦ This is God’s design and God’s standard – one that Jesus clearly affirmed. CHRISTIAN LIVING BIBLE STUDIES – Lighted Way GOD KNEW you before you were born.LESSON STUDY Jeremiah 1:5 â€Å"Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; †¦ work of God’s design. You are God’s child. †¦ A severe form of self-rejection is wishing that you were born the opposite sex, †¦ Download Before I Was Born (God’s Design for Sex) Full version Read This First: We offer two ways that you can get this book for free, You can choose the way you like! You must provide us your shipping information after you complete the survey. All books will be shipped from Amazon US or Amazon UK depending on your region! Please share this free experience to your friends on your social network to prove that we really send free books! Tags:Before I Was Born (God’s Design for Sex), Before I Was Born (God’s Design for Sex) By Carolyn Nystrom, Before I Was Born (God’s Design for Sex) PDF Download Full PDF Version of This Book – Free Download Before I Was Born (God’s Design for Sex) pdf ebooks free Download The Four Loves pdf ebooks free Download The Intolerance of Tolerance pdf ebooks free Download The Weight of Glory pdf ebooks free Download The Arising Voice ( Vol. 3) A Book Series for Christian Disciple pdf ebooks free Download The Good and Beautiful God: Falling in Love with the God Jesus K pdf ebooks free Download Twelve Steps to a Compassionate Life pdf ebooks free Download The Arising Voice ( Vol. 3) A Book Series for Christian Disciple pdf ebooks free Download Voice in the Night pdf ebooks free Download Life Changing pdf ebooks free Other PDF Books: Download The Four Loves pdf ebooks by C.S. Lewis Download The Intolerance of Tolerance pdf ebooks by D. A. Carson Download The Weight of Glory pdf ebooks by C. S. 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Agriculture in the Uae Essay

Agriculture in the UAE Lying in the heart of the world’s arid zone, the UAE has little rainfall and one would expect it to be a barren place. Barren places there certainly are, but the process of desertification has very largely been arrested in the country. It is now possible to see forests, fields of grass and wheat where once there were only desert sands and winds. The UAE has a long tradition of agriculture in its oases where crops have been grown for 5000 years. Underground water was chandelled to palm groves and small fields and the technique is still used today. Since the formation of the UAE in 1971, this small scale traditional farming has been complemented by investment that has seen thousands of hectares being cultivated. In the past 25 years, the country’s population has increased ten-fold and agricultural production has kept pace with this growth. The country is self-sufficient in salad crops and poultry for much of the year and even exports crops to markets in Europe. Most of the UAE’s agricultural production comes from four areas: from in and around Al Ain, from a narrow but fertile strip along the east coast, from the oasis of Dhaid east of Sharjah and from the gravel plains in Ras al Khaimah. According to figures from the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, agricultural production stands at over Dh 2 billion per year. An average crop season yields over 600,000 tons of crops such as tomatoes, cucumbers, aubergines, lettuce, cabbage and animal feed. Studies have shown that much of the country’s soil can be cultivated provided there is water and as a result, there has been an extensive programme to drill water wells. The government will prepare land for local farmers which they are then given free along with seeds, machinery and advice on pest control. There is also government-funded research on different crops to see how they adapt to the local climate. In an attempt to conserve and use as much water as possible in as many ways as possible, the government has embarked on a three-part programme designed to make the most advantageous use of this scarce resource. First, farmers are given advice on how to reduce their consumption of water, mainly through trickle irrigation. Desalinated water as well as recycled and purified sewage effluent is used. Second, with the help of the United States Geological Survey, the government is searching for ew aquifers and monitoring current rates of extraction. Third and last, to prevent the waste of valuable rainwater, retention dams have been constructed in many areas. These store the water until it can be used for irrigation. Tens of millions of gallons of rainwater are being retained by the dams already built throughout the Emirates. In the long run, of course, it is realized that desalinated water will provide the bulk of agricultural water. There is more to agriculture than simply growing crops. One area that has seen dramatic growth is the keeping of poultry for meat and eggs. The same is true of dairy products. Herds of imported cattle have adapted to the climate and are now producing milk, cheese and yogurt for the local market. The presence of trees and gardens in the UAE is always noticed and commented upon by visitors. Over 10 million trees have been planted plus more than 18 million palm trees. In all the cities and towns of the UAE, there have been beautification campaigns with the creation of parks and gardens for the local people. Any householder, even those in flats, can get free plants from the Municipality under a programme that distributes thousands of plants annually. Besides the greening of the cities and towns there has also been a massive programme in the desert and it is here that most of the trees have been planted. Flying over the desert, one now sees great patches of green where formerly there was only sand. All kinds of arid region plants, both local and imported, have been planted and as they grow to maturity, their roots reach down to the natural water supply. When this happens, they will be able to survive with little care and attention. The face of the land and the environment too have been changed. Wildlife flourishes as do native plants and animals. The UAE was never purely and simply a desert. Today it has become a place where greenery can be seen in both urban and rural areas. Twenty years of dedicated commitment have made the point that the process of desertification is reversible. And given time and money, that is exactly what has happened and is continuing to happen.

Critiques of New Urbanism Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Critiques of New Urbanism - Research Paper Example This paper evaluates the New Urbanist critiques of contemporary urban development, as well as the critiques of New Urbanism principles. New Urbanism is a form if an urban design program which encourages the traditional concepts of neighborhood design and apply them into a range of urban and suburban settings. The movement started as a response to the conventional suburban planning in the United States since the 1940’s where the communities are decentralized and dependent mainly on cars as a form of transportation. New Urbanists claim that the orthodox setup causes congestion in arterial roads, limited opportunities for people without cars, loss of open space and detachment to civic life. To resolve this issue, they created a reform program with planning and design principles including walkable neighborhoods in a spectrum of a five-minute walk; major orientation around public transit systems; better assimilation of diverse types of land uses at the neighborhood level; affordabl e housing; strong citizen participation; and social and economic diversity (Fulton). The New Urbanist criticisms of contemporary urban development, specifically of the sprawl were discussed by Ellis (262-266) on a research on the New Urbanism movement. ... great automobile dependency in sprawl communities can be minimized dramatically by the installation of proper transit platforms through the New Urbanist principles. While transit investments are intergenerational and long-term, they can form the framework for more efficient, reasonable and sustainable urban regions. The land-use mixtures and street patterns that New Urbanist offers are also advantageous for pedestrians and cyclists. The designs that the street patterns suggest better traffic systems and quality of the travel experience. On the other hand, higher densities and mixed uses can yield considerably lower vehicle miles travelled. Although studies regarding the impact of street patterns to the reduction of automobile commuting are limited, neoclassical economists believe that the benefits of New Urbanist designs will be fully achieved when land-use and transportation planning are applied in the regional level (Ellis 265). Moreover, New Urbanism holds the potential for substa ntial environmental benefits. Ellis (265) stated that â€Å"more compact development patterns, combined with infill strategies, make it easier to conserve sensitive environmental areas.† Even if the New Urbanist designs will reap the environmental benefits or green engineering techniques only after several years, the idea is feasible and the results of studies are encouraging. The evidence of recent researches maintain that the New Urbanist designs â€Å"can play a role in reducing wasteful land consumption and the negative environmental impacts of auto-dependent sprawl† (Ellis 266).Hence, the proper use of growth management, land-use planning and urban design strategies in urban planning can capitalize on the potential of the New Urbanist concept. However, New Urbanism’s incorrect

Create a business plan for an entrepreneurial company Essay

Create a business plan for an entrepreneurial company - Essay Example This will ensure that Soccer Nation’s business remains as competitive as the others which are already established. The store is a Limited Partnership that is owned mostly by Steve Thomason and Esther McKenna who control a 40 and 30% stake of the company. The main objective of the store is to be the leading provider of top quality soccer products around Boston. The store will make it possible for its customers to sample and enjoy its wide selection of products which are specifically made to make the sporting experience an enjoyable one. The target market for Soccer Nation will be anyone from the age of 10 to 40. Most soccer enthusiasts fall under this age group and they are also some of the most frequent buyers of soccer items. Soccer Nation wants to be the one stop shop for all people, young and old, who want to enjoy high quality soccer products. Soccer is without a doubt one of the fastest growing sports in the United States. However, there remains a huge deficit in the mark et since the suppliers of soccer items are very few. Over the last years or so, soccer as a sport has made tremendous achievements in the US and its fan base is growing each day. This has meant that the market for soccer merchandise is expanding at a fast rate, thereby presenting a great opportunity for start up businesses such as Soccer Nation. Boston is a perfect location as it is home to several universities and colleges, which contain many local and international students, the majority of soccer products’ consumers. At this location, the products will be available at a competitive price similar to that offered by other companies. The promotional strategy for this specific group of people will include free passes and tickets to soccer matches. The soccer merchandising industry in the US is marked by a clear lack of competition. The only serious competition for soccer items in the Boston area is from companies such as Nike, Olympia and City Sports which offer a variety of s ports paraphernalia unlike Soccer Nation which is planning to concentrate on soccer items only. Since there is no other store that specializes in soccer merchandising, Soccer Nation will face very little competition. This will enable it to establish itself in this particular market, hence developing a competitive advantage that is likely o benefit it in future. The people who will be in charge of running the day to day operations at the store are all well experienced in their various fields of expertise. They are also dedicated individuals whose only purpose is to ensure that Soccer Nation establishes itself into a sports powerhouse to reckon with not only in Boston, but in the rest of the country as well. Company Outline Soccer Nation is a limited proprietorship that is located in, Boston, Maryland. Esther McKenna and Steve Thomason are the founders and executives of this company. Steve Thomason is the majority owner, with a 40% ownership. Esther McKenna owns a 30% share while Mich ael Lutherfield, Moses Blundell and Richard Travis own 10% each. The company’s main aim is to provide high quality soccer merchandise at an affordable cost. The mission of Soccer nation is: To offer high quality and affordable soccer merchandise to its customers in Boston. The company’s vision is: To become the leading supplier of sports items and services in Boston. Some of the strengths and competencies of Soccer Nation include offering top quality soccer me

How Professing Bible Believing Evangelical Christians View their Thesis Proposal

How Professing Bible Believing Evangelical Christians View their Responsibility to the Great Commission - Thesis Proposal Example Once that has been established, the reasons that the Great Commission has been largely abandoned will be explored in order to seek answers to the reasons that Christians are no longer as vigilant about attending the mandates that would define their personal ministries. One of the important messages that Mathew gave to the followers of Christ was that they should go forth and spread the message of the sacrifice that Christ made for the world.1 In creating and participating in missionary work, the followers of Christ would support the message of love and forgiveness and spread the message that salvation was available through belief. Culpepper writes â€Å"The Great Commission comes to us from the context of a caring community of faith†.2 Missionary work is more than just spreading the message of salvation. It is a method of showing what the love of Christ means and serving the world so that suffering can come to an end. Missionary work is intended to motivate people to think about the world and their culture, putting Christian beliefs into context with how change will make a difference in their lives. This is done by preaching, by witnessing, and by showing the light of Christian care for the troubles of the world. Where many religions tried to make people believe that their suffering was intended by their god or gods, Christians intend to show others that their burdens can be lifted through God. Much of this is through service to the suffering.3 The fact remains, however, that there has not been a continuation of increased numbers, suggesting that the mandate to continue the spread of Christianity has met with less effort. The purpose of this study is to find reasons and excuses that are being used by Christians for not putting significant effort into missionary work. Through an examination of the literature associated to the question, the topic will be explored and examined in order to find answers to the questions that have been put

Sociology Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Sociology - Research Paper Example History can show the dangers of ethnocentrism. The Third Reich is an extreme example of ethnocentrism. Hitler felt the way to protect his Aryan race was to kill inferior races. The genocide in Rwanda committed by the Hutus against the Tutsis is another extreme example of ethnocentrism. Slavery was a form of ethnocentrism. Today examples of ethnocentrism are white supremacist and radical Islam. These groups are at war with all other cultures. In order to protect their superior culture, ethnocentrism believers fight all other groups. The dangers of ethnocentrism are the reasons for social integration. Due to modern technology, war, and population growth, the world is shrinking. Large chunks of one culture or people are becoming less common. Unless living in an isolated location, where one never leaves and others do not visit, individuals will encounter different cultures during their lifespan. Especially in America, where many cultures live, work, and make up communities, the need for social integration is essential. More social integration will lessen the violence, discrimination, and verbal aggression between cultures. The less violence in between races will help communities to get along and reduce hate

Response Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Response - Assignment Example I have always had a desire to be a director someday and I intend to work towards that goal. The airline industry is a great industry to enter as an employee due to the expected expansion of air travel in the next of couple of decades. The airline industry is forecasted to grow at a rate of 3.6% annually until 2030 (Faa). If your aspirations are to become an administrator of a major airline you must keep an open mind to working at an international location. Hopefully from five years from now I will be working at a well known accounting firm if not earlier. Later I will like to go for my master degree because that what most careers are looking for. If I cant find a good job with my degree in New York, then I will move somewhere else as possible. The place Im doing my intern will place me in a good position for helping them out or Im wondering being at Macys for six years with my bachelors degree I hope they put me in corporate in Ohio. Accounting is a great career choice. When you open any newspaper and read the classified ads you will always find work in accounting. If you want to reach the upper managerial accounting positions a master’s degree will help you a lot towards that goal. I also recommend that you pursue a professional certification in accounting such as a CPA or CMA. This course has really helped me out a lot and I really enjoyed reading other classmates thoughts about the topics. In 5 years from now I hope to have landed a job that I have been looking for and been preparing for, and in ten years from now, hopefully have moved up in that company. I don’t plan on returning for grad school with all of this knowledge I have obtained, I hope that if I do decide to change career paths, I am prepared for the worst and best. I don’t really want to change my career path, because I have always had a passion for fashion and I plan to succeed in the fashion

Conestoga-Rovers and Associates Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Conestoga-Rovers and Associates - Case Study Example For that reason, organizations implement strategies that aim at empowering employees to perform their duties with an innate drive and freedom to interact with each other. A company can enhance the productivity of its workers through creating a good environment over which they can interact with their colleagues productively as well as ensure a friendly atmosphere. Conestoga-Rovers and Associates as well as other companies have a purpose in their attempt to facilitate several social events that influence the working environment for their employees. Influencing the working environment has indirect effect on the productivity of an organization as well as a direct one on the morale of employees and therefore, many of them perform with a positivistic attitude. Companies have various reasons why they influence the working environment for employees and that cause them put a lot of investment to achieve it and therefore, improve productivity. Conestoga-Rovers and Associates Company creates a positive working environment so that it can improve the morale of its employees as they deliver their services to the company. The company invests in improving the working environment with the understanding that it is likely to perform well when employees are happy. A moralized employee has high commitment to the activities of the company and takes his or her responsibilities so that he or she can ensure success of the company. In many circumstances, motivated employees are committed to the improvement of the working environments because they develop a sense of ownership to the activities of the company (Nyp, 2007). On the other hand, creating satisfaction mood in employees ensures that all the employees can protect the properties of the company for which they are working and reducing the chances of the company making losses. Creating a positive working environment enhances retention of highly performing employees and builds their loyalty to the management and the administrators of the company. In a company that allows employees freedom, growth and interactive platforms for doing their day to day activities, highly performing workers are likely stay for long. Employees are likely to stay because they feel that the company for which they work values their services by creating an environment for improvement of skills and refreshing their bodies after a period of continuous work. In Conestoga-Rovers and Associates, employees have enough time to spend in social activities on regular bases, which makes employees to break their monotony of regular working (Nyp, 2007). Companies manage its working environment so that it can attract highly qualified employees who are likely to improve its productivity in case of a vacancy. Conestoga-Rovers and Associates Company or any other company improves working environment as way of creating a competitive advantage in the market in the process of acquiring new employees for the company. Employees that work in a company that has a positive working environment act as ambassadors with good information to the labor market for which the company fetches new employees (Nyp, 2007). When there is a vacancy and the company advertises and attracts a large number of candidates, it gives the management an easy time to select the best for a job from a large pool of applicants. Question 2 In order for a company to provide services that are unique from the ones that other companies offer, it has to evaluate the various factors that characterize it workforce. On the other hand, a company may consider its monetary potential to offer motivations to its employee according to their number and the size of the perks they want to provide to them. To achieve the goal of giving perks that its employees value, Conestoga-Rovers

Puerto Rican immigration and their occupational difficulties in the US Research Paper

Puerto Rican immigration and their occupational difficulties in the US - Research Paper Example 1). Moreover, it is still among the countries with high crime rates and murders have been averaged to 26.2 per 10,000 inhabitants. Therefore, the paper will seek to look into the immigration of the Puerto Ricans into the US. It will also look into their occupational difficulties and poor income. Puerto Ricans early migration to the United States was mainly a result of serious poverty levels as much as crime related issues also contributed to this effect (Hong et al p. 118). The number of migrants increased after Puerto Rico became a protectorate of the United States, thereby, improving relation ties between these countries. Migration patterns were mainly determined by the existence of industrial jobs mainly in New York City and increased as the years advanced. With the First World War at bay, approximately 1000 Puerto Ricans served as Army soldiers in the US. This number increased by the time the Second World War was happening. World War II contributed greatly towards the immigration of Puerto Ricans. It brought about economic issues in Puerto Rico leading to their immigration to the United States. The effect of the Second World War which took almost ten years caused the population of Puerto Ricans to rise to approximately two million people with the residents experiencing low living standards. Lack of employment opportunities after immigration was a major problem the Puerto Ricans faced as they settled in New York City (Mihelich p.65). The main source of employment during this period was available in garment shops in the district. There were also various jobs that were available to the immigrants in the city. Puerto Ricans who were hard working did jobs in the city’s garment shops. Moreover, illiterate immigrants did low skilled jobs in the city’s industries in order to make a living for themselves. Therefore, the insurgence of the Second World War greatly contributed to the migration patterns of the Puerto Ricans

The Cult of Celebrity - Heroes & Celebrity Assignment

The Cult of Celebrity - Heroes & Celebrity - Assignment Example Whether it be a hero or a celebrity, each possesses the ability to draw intense loyalty from those who feel they are deserving of it. In most cases, celebrities garner far greater attention through media coverage but as is the case with heroes, each through action is taken, have the chance to make an impact on those around them. The similarity between celebrities and heroes would be the faithfulness they would draw from the general populous. A stark contrast between the two would be the underlying presence of garnering fame and attention, that many of those people labeled celebrities, seek to bring to themselves. For those in more of a hero position, they often times tend to do that which they do, from a standpoint of doing whats right versus whats wrong, instead of doing what may be socially acceptable and something that would give them great fame and power. In regards to an example of heroes, one that would come to mind, would be the men and women of the military that day in and day out, place themselves in harm's way for the greater good of all men. They seek to do so to assist others and not so that they'd be able to bring undue attention to themselves. With regards to the world of celebrity, those examples would include George Clooney and Julia Roberts. Individuals that place themselves in the public ey e and are attention grabbers. The individuals who grace the covers of magazines and newspaper advertisements. Especially in the era after September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in New York City, when millions were left scared and bewildered, the need for heroes became far greater than it had beforehand. The need to have those individuals that seek to fight and defeat any foe that may cross their path. Whether it be a physical opponent or an inanimate object, a hero is someone that many seek refuge with when it comes to regaining a sense of security and normalcy.

Domestic workers in America Essay Example for Free

Domestic workers in America Essay In the United States of America a domestic worker is also known as a servant and most often they work and live within the household of their employers. The servants are very distinguishable from the slaves and the serfs since they receive payments for the work they do for their employers. The domestic workers have the freedom of leaving their employment at their free will. In the households which are large there are very many domestic workers who do different kinds of jobs. In America a butler is seen as the most senior domestic worker and he performs duties such as managing the other household servants as well as handling the wines. In America the female domestic workers are known as the maids. Their household chores range from; ironing, cleaning, cooking, washing, Purchasing the household drinks and foods, caring for the children, going together with the household head for the grocery shopping as well as taking the family dogs for walks if there are any. In most instances the domestic workers in America substitute the nursing role of caring for the elderly people in different households as well as taking care of those who have disabilities. (Anderson and Bowman 1993) The different domestic worker organizations in the United States of America The domestic workers union 2000 The domestic workers union was founded in New York by some elderly caregivers, housekeepers and some nannies from the Caribbean, Latin and the African countries. This organizations has a mission of empowering, respecting, and also subjecting the domestic workers to fair labor standards in America especially in the New York City. This organization also aimed at helping in the building of a movement which would end the exploitation and also the oppression of the domestic workers in America. The domestic workers union further supports the domestic workers who have suffered some violations and also abuse as well as violation of their rights in their work places. They also conduct some referrals, they make a provision for a direct support with the domestic workers employees and they at times organize some public support to the organizations members. The other domestic workers organizations in America assist in the protection of the rights and the dignity of the American domestic workers. Some of these organizations produce a contract which is standard for all the employers and the domestic workers including the employment agencies for the domestic workers. (Chow 1994) The domestic workers organizations in America offer some nanny training programs, the computer literacy programs and also some leadership training programs. Other domestic workers organizations in America include; the domestic workers homecare centre, the united domestic workers of America, the united domestic workers of San Diego, the united domestic workers of California and the national alliance of domestic workers. How the domestic worker groups are trying to assist the domestic workers have better experiences in America These domestic worker groups break the isolation of the domestic workers who work in the domestic work industry in the United States of America. This is because without the domestic workers in America all the activities in the major cities would stop in their tracks. On the other hand since the domestic workers especially women are devalued in most of the work aspects these worker groups seek to further educate the public so that they can respect the domestic workers and the work which they do. By educating the public on respecting the domestic workers these groups tend to uncover the racial and gender inequalities which exist in the domestic work industry and the labor market. Similarly these domestic worker groups fight for the recognition of the domestic workers in America as real and also skilled workers in the American population. On the other hand most of the domestic workers are excluded from most of the basic protections which are afforded to the workers in America and this is inclusive of the national labor relations and other discrimination protections thus the domestic workers organizations in America work towards ensuring that such protections are enforced and that the working conditions of the domestic workers ere not solely left at the whims if the employers. (Anderson and Bowman 1993) Similarly these organizations further seek to establish very fair and just standards which formerly recognize the domestic workforce as a real workforce with its own protections. In addition to this these domestic organizations in the united stats of America are movements which win justice for all the domestic workers in America. (Nancy 1987) This is because they address the root causes of all the injustices as well as the exploitation which are faced by the domestic workers alone since all these issues take more than the domestic workers single-handedly. The struggles of the domestic workers in America are closely tied to the struggles of all the other American workers, the immigrants, the migrants and also the oppressed communities. The domestic workers organizations connect with each other as well as other organizations and they build a movement that is very powerful in creating the change needed in the domestic workers workforce. (Chow 1994) The domestic worker groups are looking for ways to include the domestic workers as employees and this will further lead to better working conditions for the domestic workers and they could also be free to form the labor unions just as the other employees in the United States of America. Similarly these groups work towards achieving government Acts which have fair labor standards which set the minimum and wage rates and they also address the issue of the maximum working hours for the domestic workers. Similarly these organizations ensure that the domestic workers are not discriminated on the basis of their color, religion, age, nationality, sex, race as well as their disability. (Chow 1994) How the domestic workers are treated Some of the domestic workers in America receive very bad and poor treatment from their employers as well as the other household members. On the other hand some domestic workers are treated well by their host families. The domestic workers who receive bad treatment from their employers have their privacy invaded. They are also subjected to some sexual, emotional and physical abuses which in extreme cases lead to severe injury or even death. On the other hand the freedom of the domestic workers is restricted by the employees and this implies that they are at times treated as slaves who do not have a say on the decisions that are made pertaining their lives. Many of the domestic workers in America are also treated harshly by their employers as they have their personal documents confiscated especially the new immigrants such that they cannot willingly leave their employers. On the other hand the domestic workers have their working hours and also wages violated especially the live in domestic workers. The issues that the domestic workers have to deal with Most of the domestic workers in America work under very exploitive and harsh conditions and they have very many issues which they have to deal with. For instance the domestic workers are barred from organizing into unions collectively. It is however very important to note that the domestic workers form a very significant part of the American economy yet they are not protected by the labor laws of the federal state as the other employees are protected. In addition to this the domestic workers are faced with very unique barriers of organization since they have difficulties in doing negotiations with the employers as they each are in isolation in their employers households. (Nancy 1987) Most of the domestic workers stay for significant periods with the same employers in the same industry. They are a very stable workforce and they further endure various working conditions which further violate their rights as workers as well as human beings. The domestic workers deal with a lot of issues and they are inclusive of the following; ? Wages Statistics show that half of the domestic workers in America earn very low wages. Most of them make their wages below the minimum wages. On the other hand some of the domestic workers work overtime most of whom do not receive their overtime pays for the overtime hours in which they have worked. In America the domestic workers are the key providers in their families and some of them provide for their home countries but on the other hand they face very severe financial hardships as they work in the domestic labor force. ? Abuse Similarly the American domestic workers experience a lot of abuse from their employers or even the other household members. The abuse which comes from their employers could be inform of physical or even verbal abuse and this makes then feel very insecure and uncomfortable on the other hand some of the domestic workers who face various kinds of abuse identify their immigration status and racism as the main factors which contribute to the actions of their employers. (Chow 1994) The domestic workers also experience some sexual abuse and harassments by their employers but since the employees fear their employers then they are reluctant to report such abuses to the public as well as the concerned authorities. Thus the domestic workers cannot gat any form of assistance from the humanitarian groups, the governmental agencies or even the non-governmental groups. ? Lack of health insurance Most of the domestic workers in America do not receive the health insurance or health cover from their employers. Similarly in America most of the domestic worker cannot afford decent medical care which is necessary for themselves and also their other family members. On the other hand it is only less than half of the domestic workers who get basic benefits from their employers such as sick off and other regular pay rises. (Anderson and Bowman 1993) ? Stress Most of the domestic workers in America are faced with the issue of stress in the households where they work. The employers cause a lot of stress to the domestic workers by requiring them to do multiple jobs. Sometimes the employers also require them to perform duties which are not in their job descriptions in any way. On the other hand some of the employers require their domestic workers to work for other people other than themselves. All such requirements cause a lot of stress to the domestic workers and this could even have adverse effects on their health conditions. The domestic workers experience a lot of labor exploitation and abuse than the other female workers in America and this mainly applies to the migrant domestic workers. Most of the domestic workers are isolated from their families, friends as well as the other employees. In some instances some domestic workers cannot effectively communicate with their employers and this has further led to physical or even verbal abuse. Some domestic workers are abused by their employers but they still remain for the fear that they could loose their jobs and thus they would not be able to support their families. In some extreme case the domestic workers have been severely injured and they have also been killed b their employers. (Chow 1994) Since the domestic workers have their limited choices made by their employers, the employers set the employments terms and conditions regarding their accommodations, pay, meals, contacts, off days and also their mode of payments. The employers tend to control the lives of the domestic workers in most of the aspects. Most of the domestic workers have irregular and very long working hours and they also have some irregular and low payments for their salaries. The domestic workers in America also receive accommodation and meals which are below the standards since this is determined by their employers. Some employers withhold the pay of the domestic workers and they at times fail to pay them as agreed. The domestic workers are also faced with the issue of lack of communication and movement. The employers put some restrictions which limit the domestic workers and they isolated from the outside world. Most of the domestic workers are not allowed to leave the employers houses as well as meet with other people and they are also restricted from inviting friends into their houses. Another major concern for the domestic workers in America especially the immigrants are their possession of the legal identification documents. Some of the employers confiscate the documents which belong to the domestic workers thus they are not able to register or even acquire a work permit. (Chow 1994) The measures which are being taken to rectify these situations In order to rectify the situations which are faced by the domestic workers the following measures have been taken. 1. Implementation of the domestic workers bill of rights. This bill was amended so that it could address various issues concerning the domestic workers in America. The issues which are addressed in this bill of rights included the exclusion of the domestic workers from the most basic labor protections and it also provides a further recognition for the domestic workers workforce as real workforce. Similarly in the bill of rights there was an establishment of specified protections which addressed the vulnerability and the isolation of the domestic workers to the mistreatment and also abuse from their employers. 2. Instigation of the domestic workers policies which further prevent the recruitment fees which are exorbitant for the domestic workers as well as the debt payment systems which are very exploitive for the domestic workers in the United States of America. Such policies also cover the issue of trafficking domestic workers to the United States of America. 3. In rectifying these situations the domestic work is included as a part of the formal sector of employment. This will make it more recognizable and the domestic labor will fully be protected under the labor laws. 4. There is an establishment of employment contracts which are standard for all the domestic workers in America. This helps in the protection of the domestic workers rights and responsibilities. The contract also includes a definition of the employee’s responsibilities which should be categorized under the domestic work. It also defines the payment rates as well as the working conditions under which the domestic workers should be subjected and it also defines the working hours and the day offs. The contract also considers the domestic workers who are immigrants in the United States of America. (Nancy 1987) 5. Another measure which is being taken in order to rectify the situation off the domestic workers in America is the setting of the public awareness campaigns. These campaigns are based on the laws and regulations regarding the domestic workers in America. Through these campaigns the public is enlightened on the penalties which are entitled to the employers who commit any kind of abuse to the domestic workers. On the other hand the campaigns pay a lot of attention to the issues of the racial and gender migrations and this is inclusive of the living and also the working conditions of the domestic workers. The domestic workers through the campaigns are enlightened on their rights and the rights of their employers. 6. Another important measure which is being taken in addressing the situation of the domestic workers in America is the publicizing of the complaint mechanisms and other hot line services which are accessible to the domestic workers. This would be very helpful especially for the domestic workers in America who have been experiencing all kinds of problems with their employers. Similarly this would provide a better coordination between the employers, the domestic workers and the labor inspectors as well as the immigration officers and the police. (Anderson and Bowman 1993) 7. On the other hand there is development of systematic mechanisms and also training for various labor agencies especially for the non governmental organizations in all the levels. This further ensures that all these parties have a very clear understanding of all the issues which are related to the needs and the rights of the domestic workers. Similarly they will be able to apply the suitable responses whenever the domestic workers are abuses in any way or when their rights are infringed by their employers. The trainings would help the participating parties to counsel, shelter or even refer the domestic workers for health care treatments. 8. There is also the provision of mechanisms for the domestic workers who are immigrants to the United States of America. These mechanisms call for justice if the immigrant domestic workers receive bad treatment from their employers. Similarly they ensure that the immigrant domestic workers are not exploited, cheated, persecuted and they also do not suffer from any form of abuse from their recruiters, employers and other concerned authorities. In such mechanisms there is a requirement for knowledgeable interpreters. 9. Another measure which is being taken in rectifying the situation of the domestic workers is the increase of the number of the labor inspectors in America. Their authority is also being revised so that they can be able to carry out investigations on the working conditions which apply to the informal work places such as the households. On the other hand such inspection is also undertaken on a regular basis in the households which the domestic workers work. (Chow 1994) 10. There is also the development of a positive public perception on the domestic workers especially those who have emigrated from other countries to the United States of America. This would allow the public to appreciate the value of the work which is done by the domestic workers in the country. This is creatively done through the country’s mass media especially in the soap operas whereby the domestic workers are displayed as people who play a significant role in the American economy and the whole country at large. This has further helped in counteracting the image of the domestic workers and especially the women who have very low social economic status as well as those with low education levels. 11. In the United States of America there is a regularization process for the domestic workers who are immigrants and this only grants them the right to work. Thus these domestic workers can travel to other districts but only in the company of their employers. 12. There are measures which are looking into establishing some informal and also self help organizations for the domestic workers. This would give the domestic workers an opportunity to interact as well as share their personal experiences with the other domestic workers. 13. So as to improve the situation of the domestic workers in America the government has developed some programs for the immigrant workers and this is inclusive of a pre-departure orientation which is mandatory for the domestic worker and it looks into the heath issues. The issues of the domestic workers rights and responsibilities are also addressed in the orientation. The government acts to protect the human right of the immigrant and also the local domestic workers in America. There is also an establishment of some follow-up programs whereby the employees provide the necessary information on their rights over the domestic workers under the labor laws. This would ensure that both the employees and the employers have a transparency which exists between them and thus any forms of abuses are highly avoided. (Nancy 1987) Conclusion In the United States of America the domestic workers remain to be a very significant part of the country’s secondary labor markets. However there have been very major changes in the ethnicity and the geographical origins of the domestic workers in America. On the other hand the domestic workers have been experiencing some very harsh working conditions from their employees whereby their privacy is infringed upon as well as their rights as workers and human beings. However there are some measures which have been taken to address the situation of the domestic workers in America. These include the implementation of the domestic workers bill of rights and other policies and programs which help in protecting the rights of the domestic workers in America. Reference: Anderson, C. And Bowman, M. (1993): The Vanishing Servant and the Contemporary Status System of the American South. American Journal of Sociology Chow, E. (1994): Asian American Women at Work, Survival, Resistance, and Coping. Women of Color in U. S. Society. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Nancy F. (1987): Introduction, New Immigrants and Changing Patterns in New York City. The New Immigrants in New York; (Ed. ) New York: Columbia University Press.

Competency Based Assessments in Education

Competency Based Assessments in Education Chapter 4 Literature Review on Competence-based Assessment 4.1 Introduction In this chapter, the researcher discusses the literature on competence-based assessment. The first part examines the purposes, the interpretations of competence-based assessment (CBA), the critical attributes of CBA and the issues related to competence. The second part looks into the implementation of CBA around the world and later focuses on the implementation of CBA in Malaysia. 4.2 Competence-based Assessment: An Overview The era of the knowledge -economy and globalisation requires not only individuals who possess a sound understanding of specific subject matter but also those who have relevant industry-related skills and interpersonal skills. These attributes and capabilities are necessary for learners to acquire in order to function well in todays complex and global societies (Baartman et al., 2007). Furthermore, acquisition of complex competences (Baartman et al., 2007) has to be developed in the future human capital through purposeful, effective, learner-centred and competence-based programmes (Baartman et al., 2007) in order to prepare students to meet the needs of tomorrows world. The report of the United States Department of Education Secretarys Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, the so-called SCANS Report (McNabb, 1997), made clear that students must be ready to function in collaborative settings, interpret complex requirements, and exhibit self-directed, self-assessing behaviour on the job. This means that employers would want more from the graduates than just entry-level job skills which would help develop a nation progressively in accordance to its political and social needs. The relationship between learning and assessment (discussed in Chapters X and Y) means that assessment should take account of political and social purposes (Broadfoot, 1996). Different vocational and educational training programmes from school level to university level have been introduced to prepare and equip individuals to fit into the labour market. One such programme is Competency-Based Education (CBE) with the emphasis on assessment (competency-based assessment) being seen as key to the success of its implementation (Tillema et al, 2000; Frederiksen, 1984; Baartman et al., 2007). 4.2.1 Purposes of Competence-based Assessment Any forms of assessment s including CBA would usually have one or more of three basic purposes to diagnose learning;, to select students for particular provision; to certificate achievements (Carless et. al., 2006; Freeman Lewis, 1997; Ecclestone, 1996; Rowntree, 1987). CBA has been utilised by schools, training colleges and industriy for two main purposes; to measure competencies (McNerney Briggins, 1995) and to certificate (International Labour Organisation, 1996). 4.2.1.1 CBA for Measuring Competence Measuring competence is one of the main purposes of CBA.Generally, the reason for the implementation of CBA is to determine that learners have sufficient knowledge and skills to contribute effectively to the work force(Canning, 2000; Ecclestone, 1997; Kerka, 1998; LPM, 2002; McNabb, 1997). However,according to Hyland (1994), as competence-based education is found to be seriously flawed and ill-equipped to deal with education and training beyond the basic skills., CBA apparently could can be used to measure limited aspects of competence but Hyland (1994). He believes that its influence on training and education for future generations will be actively damaging as it could can only produce individuals who would function without much learning, knowledge and understanding of anything. He attributes this to a This is due to its highly instrumental philosophy thats combined with a narrow and uncritical behaviourist psychology. (Hyland, 1994). Thus, its qualifications resulting from CBA are viewed as basically reliable as indicators of all the most elementary skills and abilities (Armstrong, 1995). The issues of competence in CBA will be further discussed in section 4.4. 4.2.1.2 CBA for Certification It is asserted claimed that CBA provides learners with opportunities to achieve qualifications that relate to required performance in the workplace (Erridge Perry, 1994). Ecclestone (1997) indicates that NVQs, which primarily employ CBA, represent an explicit commitment to creating wider access to accreditation and better levels of achievement. She argues that Tthis could be made possible by severing links between attendance in learning programmes, and the formal assessment and accreditation of outcomes, and by promoting the accreditation of prior learning in which NVQs subsequently serve as serious challenge to traditional assessment approaches (Ecclestone, 1997). For instance, a trainee in a plumbing courseplumber would have the opportunities to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills in plumbing at certain level. He/she would then achieve the qualifications and certification that relate to the required performance of a plumber in the real life workplace once he/she has complet ed the assessment of at the at particular designated level. Nevertheless, CBA is at the same time, argued to be conceptually confusing, empirically flawed and lacking in meeting the needs of a learning society (Chappell, 1996; Ecclestone, 1997; Hyland, 1994;). This may be the results of the use of confusing language or jargons, the decreasing credibility of the competency standards on how they reflect industry standards (Kerka, 1998) and the indifferent implementation of CBA across the industries due to employers ignorance about the its nature and the purpose. of it (Hyland, 1996). 4.2.2 Definitions and Interpretations of CBA There is a wide range of interpretations and definitions given to CBA. In this discussion, CBA the interpretation of- CBA is looked atinterpreted in terms of three different aspects; the assessors roles, the learners responsibilities and the learning outcomes that are based on predetermined criteria. Figure ____tries to reflect the interedependence of these elements.The relationships of the interpretations of these three aspects are as shown in Figure ____. Adapted: Griffin Nix, 1991; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995; Hager, 1994; Elliot, 1994; Cotton, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996) In the assessors perspective, CBA consists of the simple process of seeing, collecting, gathering,and obtaining evidence, and the further process a more complex as well as subjective process of judging and interpreting the evidence of competence demonstrated by learners (Rowe, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995; Hager, 1994; Griffin Nix, 1991). The assessors have to observe gather and judge the evidence of an individuals competence against the specified standards. This means that the assessors have to be very careful in their actions of gathering evidence of competence and they have to decide when it is considered sufficient, based on their expert judgment. For example, when a student successfully builds a drywall framework, the assessor has to gather evidence of competence not only from the product which is the framework but also from the process and the preparations before the student begins to work on it such as work schedule, list of materials and equipment to be u sed, and the like. The assessor then has to use his/her expertise in this area to determine whether or not the evidence of competence gathered is adequate to say that the student has acquired satisfactory competence in building the drywall framework. McNnerney Briggins (1995) state that CBA is the process of identifying the competencies which are the underlying characteristics that lead toof successful performance be this by may it be among a group of employees, typically by department, job category or hierarchical level. CThey say that a list of competencies that is tied to one corporate culture is usually used tobecome associatede with exemplary performance (McNerney Briggins, 1995)ers. They further relate CBA to its training basis where the focus is on who the successful performers are rather than on what people do. This means that it does not just include training in jobs which rely heavily on psychomotor skills, such as manual labour and traditional hourly production work but also involve performing decision-oriented jobs (Mcnerney Briggins, 1995). The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) (2001) stresses the process of seeing whether or not an individual has the necessary skill and knowledge they need to be awarded a Scottish Vocational Qualifications as the key factor in CBA; emphsising the need for assessors to be expert . This undoubtedly requires the assessors to have even thorough knowledge and skills in the fields they are assessing in order to make good and fair judgments. This means is due to the fact that the athat assessors have to assess and collectconsider evidence of competence in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes (Rowe, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995) displayed diferentially in authentic contexts by learners in the context of a selected set of real life professional tasks which are of different levels (Hager, 1994). The process of gathering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that may be very subjective (Pedd ie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors have to determine whether or not the competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility, then, to decide if learners performances meet the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. Furthermore, assessors have to assess learners ability to apply a particular knowledge, skills, attitudes and values in a specific context according to a required performance standards (New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), 2002). In other words, assessors themselves have to be extremely knowledgeable and skilful in the art of observing and collecting evidence of competence that come in various tangible and intangible forms. The process of gat hering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that is inevitably very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors still have to determine whether or not competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility then, to decide if learners are considered to be competent in a particular context at a particular level based on their performance whether or not it meets the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. In addition to assessing and making judgment on students performance based on evidence gathered, assessors would also have to give constructive and supportive feedback to students on their performance and work (Ecclestone, 1996; Sadler, 2009). The assessors would have to point out the strengths and weaknesses as well as the improvements that could be made in the future (Sadler, 2009). Sadler (2009) further proposes that feedback should be given in a manner that would be able toenables educate students to assess and be able to evaluate their own work and give feedback to themselves as well. He suggests that students shcould be taught to monitor the quality of their productions and make adjustments as necessary while they are actually engaged in doing it. In From the learners point of view on the other handperspective, CBA is the platform for them to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes (Elliot, 1994). These competencies will range from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time in very different contexts.Elliot further asserts that CBA requires learners to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes in performance assessment which vary in terms of simplicity and complexity such as from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time, all of which are then judged . Learners are expected to be deeply involved in the assessment process and they areto be aware of the specified criteria that they have to meet as well as the standards of performance that are expected of them right from the beginning even before the assessment is conducted. Theoretically, tThis allows learners to take charge of and control over their own learning outcomes and success by preparing them selves well in advance. In other words, learners would have the autonomy for in their own learning, as CBA canould promote individuality and personal development (Ecclestone, 1996). The learners responsibility includes demostrating the It is also here in CBA that learners have to show their ability to apply theoretical knowledge and procedures, in addition to their understanding ofbeing able to describe the theories or even point to appropriate theoretical knowledge (Cotton, 1995). In demonstrating competence Cotton further elucidates that learners also have to express wise use of common sense in the public by demonstrating good physical, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills with mindful decision- making; that suggests the multiple intelligence described by Gardner (1985). In other words, learners have to demonstrate their abilities in all the three psychological domains of psychomotor, cognitive and affective learning (ANTA, 1998). Similarly, the Australias National Training Auth ority (ANTA) (1998) considers CBA to be a platform for learners to display their skills, knowledge and experience in accomplishing specific tasks as required in the workplace or to obtain a credit towards a qualification in the vocational and education training (VET). A Both the assessors and learners have one thing in common: to focus on and that is the set of learning outcomes that can be derived from an assessment. Learning outcomes cover diverse range of areas including personal qualities, various forms of knowledge and skills (Ecclestone, 1996). In this case it is the evidence of competence that learners have to demonstrate and which the assessors have to observe for and make judgments on, has to meet specified criteria. Thus, CBA consists of specified set of both the general and specific outcomes that assessors, learners and third parties can make reasonably objective judgments with respect to learners achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes (Wolf, 1995). CBA then certifies learners progress based on the demonstrated achievement of these outcomes while the assessments may not be necessarily tied to time served in formal educational settings. The emphasis is on the outcomes specifically, multiple outcomes, each distinctive and separ ately considered which should be specified clearly and as transparent as possible for assessors, assessees and third parties to understand what is being assessed and what should be achieved (Wolf, 1995) . This definition encapsulates the key-features of CBA as it has been developed and promoted for the vocational, technical and professional education and training in the UK while at the same time it signals the American origins of much of the debate (Wolf, 1995). The demonstrated performance that provides evidence of competence has to be at least of the minimum required quality in the real life workplace environment. These are the predetermined criteria set in CBA which are generally based on endorsed industry benchmark or competency standard (ANTA, 1998). The emphasis on outcomes and transparency is not only peculiar to the competence-context but it is also an essential characteristic of criterion-referenced assessment. The emphasis on what learners can actually do and the beneficia l effects of clear criteria on teaching and learning (Glaser, 1963; Popham, 1978) are argued to meet the competence-based literature where in England in the early years of the implementation of CBA, such system was referred to as criterion-referenced approach (Jessup 1991: 167). Jessup (1991) further underlines that what people actually learn from an education and training system and how effectively, as the key factor to measure its success. Thus, CBA is considered a criterion-referenced interpretation of assessment (Nuttall, 1984; Ling, 1999) where individuals are given an award after achieving the pre-determined standards (Cotton, 1995). This critical attribute of CBA will be discussed further in section 4.3.2. 4.3 Critical Attributes of Competence-based Assessment The following section discusses the two learning theories associated with CBA and the nature of its criterion-referenced assessment. 4.3.1 Learning Theories Associated with Competence-based Assessment Learning in the psychology and education contexts is a the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and values, and world views acquisition and enhancement through ones integrated employment of cognitive, emotional, and experiences (Illeris, 2000; Ormorod, 1995). How this process works is explained variously. Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place and the explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. In other words, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, and they help uncover the inherently complex process of learning to our understanding. Hill (2002) explains that learning theories have two main values. The first is to provide adequate vocabulary and a conceptual framework in to interpreting examples of observed learning; and the second. Next is to suggest the right directions to look for solutions to practical problem instead of providing the solutions. Learning theories are therefore, the basis for any form of educational assessment (Gipps, 1994) and the theories most commonly associated to with CBA are the behaviourism and, more recently, the constructivism. These two theories will be discussed as CBA essentially involves observable aspects of learning and learning as a process for construction of new knowledge. Although the cognitive theory which looks beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning is important, the need for it in CBA is not that apparent or crucial. Thus it is not included in the discussion. 4.3.1.1 Behaviourist Learning Theory Behaviourism is a theory of organism (may it be an animal or human) learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999) with the assumption that a learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997) in the acquisition of new behaviour (Chowdhury, 2006). Learning according to the behaviourists takes place as the result of a response that follows on a specific stimulus and that behaviour is shaped through reinforcement (Kerka, 1997). By repeating the Stimulus-Response (S-R) cycle the learner is conditioned into repeating the response whenever the same stimulus is present and thusbehaviour can be modified and learning is measured by observable change in behaviour (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999). Theis emphasis on stimulus-response pairing (Murphy, 1999; Chowdhury, 2006) and the rejections to of structuralism (Kerka, 1997) reflected behaviourisms positivistic philosophical base, as the analysis of the human condition relies on only verifiable observations of behaviour and not on untenable mentalistic constructs (Kerka, 1997). Furthermore,Accordingly most human behaviour could can be understood as basic reflexive learning mechanisms or laws that operate on ones experience within the environment (Kerka, 1997). As the approach is seen to be more operational and practical in nature, it has dominated education.n, in which Tthe teacher disseminates selected knowledge, measures learners passive reception of facts, and focuses on behaviour control and task completion (Kerka, 1997). These views of the behaviourists and the learning characteristics that can be found in the education setting are summarised in Table___. Generally, conditioning has been identified in experiments by behaviourists to be a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural pattern: Classic conditioning occurs when an instinctive reaction responds to a stimulus (Comer, 2004). Essentially, animals and people are biologically wired so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. As such, learning process takes place when two events that repeatedly occur close together in time are associated in a persons mind to impulsively produce the same response. The most popular example is Pavlovs observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food where food is unconditioned stimulus and the salivation, the unconditioned reflex (Comer, 2004; Chowdhury, 2006). Pavlovs theory of classical conditioning is considered a foundation of learning theories to the behaviourists. According to Pavlovs experiment, when some neutral stimulus, such as the ringing of a bell, is combined with the presentation of food and is repeated for a period of time, the dog salivates with the ringing of the bell, even though food is not given. Hence, the ringing of the bell acts as the conditioned stimulus while salivation is the conditioned response or reflex (Dembo: 1994). The result of this experiment led to the formation of Pavlovs classical conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would ordinarily produce such a response. Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a response to a stimulus is rewarded or reinforced, then the response is likely to take place in the future. Similarly, when a particular behaviour is rewarded, that behaviour is repeated as shown in the experiment conducted by B.F. Skinner using reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball. B.F. Skinner based his theory upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour where these changes in behaviour are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment (Chowdhury, 2006). According to Skinner, a reward or punishment will either strengthen or weaken a voluntary or automatic behaviour (Skinner: 1968). Ever since its introduction, the reinforced techniques have gone through series of enhancement and have contributed tremendously in training and teaching. The most important aspect of Skinners contribution to training is the significance attached to the desired behaviour to be emitted in certain environment. In order for the trainer to ensure the right behaviour is reinforced in the trainees, the trainer should have the clear idea about the terminal behaviour of the trainees, and should closely follow the trainees to appropriately reinforce correct responses. This is the purpose of programmed instructions including competence-based training in its early years of implementation which was based on this theory of reinforcement (Burns, 1995). . As the emerging learning theory of the early 1900s, behaviourism provided the final found ation for social efficiency as learning which is seen objectively consists of the formation of links between specific stimuli and responses through the application of rewards ( Wirth, 1972 ). The emphasis on the need of objectivity leads to extensive use of statistical and ma thematical analysis. Despite all the remarkable contribution s the learning theory has to offer , the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role the mind play in shaping ones behaviour. Men are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. Thus, the behaviourist theory of learning is lacking in utilizing the full potential of the mind in moulding essential behaviour and in constructing new knowledge . Assessment in Behaviourism Assessment, according to behaviourism, is a test (the stimulus) for which the answer (the response) is conditioned In accordance to the behaviourist learning theory which focuses on the stimulus-response cycle to attain observable conditioned behaviour, assessment in the behaviourism also applies the same concept. Thus, t he test item is the stimulus, the answer is the response and a learner has to be conditioned to produce the appropriate response to any given stimulus ( (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999). NSince the emphasis is on the response that is observable, no attention is paid to any model of the thinking process of the learner which might intervene between stimulus and response. Consequently, the distinctions between rote learning and learning with understanding is not considered as teaching is a matter deliveringof delivering the appropriate stimuli while learning is a matter of repeating the appropriate response, which will be rewarded. is what matters the most in which teaching is by repetition and then rewarding the appropriate responses. As such, a test composed of many short, atomised, out-of-context questions, and teaching to the test, are both consistent with this approach (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997). Likewise, some forms of CBA which has always been associated to thewith behaviourist theory can be seen to assess, atomistically. applied the atomistic but not out of context approach. The assessor who is an observer ticks off a checklist of predetermined criteria whenever a learner has performed a series of discrete observable tasks. The criteria are the stimuli, the accomplished tasks the responses and learner has to be conditioned to demonstrate the ability to meet the criteria successfully. Although this approach to assessment may developstestify to learners ability to perform observable tasksbehaviours, it does not pay much attention to the theoretical knowledge and understanding (Ashworth, 1992) as the role of the mind is considered insignificant in delivering the required behaviour. While assessing competent observable performance is vital, assessing knowledge and understanding is just as important as it is an essential aspect of competence without which an assessment is lacking in credibility or construct validity (Ashworth, 1992). A valid assessment method should be able to measure what it is supposed to measure which in this case (Watson, 1994). Given the extensive discussion in Chapter ? on the idea of competence, both the observable performance behaviour and underpinning knowledge are aspects of competence that should be assessed and measured. People who understand are those who have clear mental representation of the situation with which they are confronted and are able to deal with it creatively and imaginatively using the acquired knowledge which acts as an interpretive resource for them (Ashworth, 1992). Thus, it is insufficient to assess ones competence just by looking at the performance while ignoring the aspect of knowledge and understanding. It is unfortunate then, if such an assessment method should produce people who are like robots in a factory; they couldwho can perform a job or a task efficiently and effectively but they do not have any understanding of what they were are doing. As the approachCBA also emphasises personal competence within competence concentrates on an individual demonstrating competent performance ((Wolf, 1995), traditional notions of CBA have allowed an and emphasises on personal competences, it leads to one being individualistic perspective whilst lacking ignoring the very necessary in the abability of being able to work as a team player to work as a team whereas team work is essential in performing relevan t aspect of a job in the actual workplace (Ashworth, 1992). As a result, theis behaviourist view of CBA has eventually shifted to the constructivist belief as discussed in the following section.weakened. Despite all the remarkable contributions the learning theory has to offer, the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role that the mind plays in influencing ones behaviour. People are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. 4.3.1.2 Constructivist Learning Theory Constructivism is a theory of learning that has roots in both philosophy and psychology (Doolitle Camp, 1999) founded on the premise that learners actively construct their own knowledge, meaning and understanding of the world they live in by reflecting on their experiences (Doolitle Camp, 1999; Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997). Learners learn by doing rather than observing and by bringing prior knowledge into a learning situation (Epstein Ryan, 2002; Carvin, date?) in which they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it until they can demonstrate their comprehension of the subject (Carvin). Furthermore, learners need to analyse and transform new information or problems in their minds based on existing knowledge and understanding where these abstract thoughts evolve from concrete action (Murphy, 1999). Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting their mental models to accommodate new experiences. TBasically, the theory of constructivism rests on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world by building cognitive structures which include declarative knowledge (know that facts, concepts, propositions) and procedural knowledge (know how techniques, skills, and abilities) (Murphy, 1999). These two components of knowledge have been discussed in depth in Chapter 3. Moreover, learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation which takes place within the social context and is of useful to the learner as intrinsic motivation emerges from the desire to understand and to construct meaning (Billet, 1996). However, dispositions such as attitudes, values and interests that help learners decide, are often neglected in this theory (Murphy, 1999) making it incomprehensive and insufficient in a way. Philosophically, the essence of constructivism relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism and relativism, where personally unique reality resulted from the concept that reality can be known through experience although it may exist separate from experience (Doolitle Camp, 1999). Hence came four essential epistemological tenets of constructivism (Von Glasersfeld ,1984; 1998; Doolitle Camp, 1999); Knowledge is the result of active cognizing by the individual ; Cognition is an adaptive process that functions to make an individuals behaviour more viable given a particular environment; Cognition organizes and makes sense of ones experience, and is not a process to render an accurate representation of reality; and Knowing has roots both in biological/neurological construction, and in social, cultural, and language-based interactions (Dewey, 1916/1980; Garrison, 1997; Larochelle, Bednarz, Garrison, 1998; Gergen, 1995). Thus, constructivism acknowledges the active role learners play in the personal creation of knowledge, the importance of both the individual and social experiences in this knowledge creatio Competency Based Assessments in Education Competency Based Assessments in Education Chapter 4 Literature Review on Competence-based Assessment 4.1 Introduction In this chapter, the researcher discusses the literature on competence-based assessment. The first part examines the purposes, the interpretations of competence-based assessment (CBA), the critical attributes of CBA and the issues related to competence. The second part looks into the implementation of CBA around the world and later focuses on the implementation of CBA in Malaysia. 4.2 Competence-based Assessment: An Overview The era of the knowledge -economy and globalisation requires not only individuals who possess a sound understanding of specific subject matter but also those who have relevant industry-related skills and interpersonal skills. These attributes and capabilities are necessary for learners to acquire in order to function well in todays complex and global societies (Baartman et al., 2007). Furthermore, acquisition of complex competences (Baartman et al., 2007) has to be developed in the future human capital through purposeful, effective, learner-centred and competence-based programmes (Baartman et al., 2007) in order to prepare students to meet the needs of tomorrows world. The report of the United States Department of Education Secretarys Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, the so-called SCANS Report (McNabb, 1997), made clear that students must be ready to function in collaborative settings, interpret complex requirements, and exhibit self-directed, self-assessing behaviour on the job. This means that employers would want more from the graduates than just entry-level job skills which would help develop a nation progressively in accordance to its political and social needs. The relationship between learning and assessment (discussed in Chapters X and Y) means that assessment should take account of political and social purposes (Broadfoot, 1996). Different vocational and educational training programmes from school level to university level have been introduced to prepare and equip individuals to fit into the labour market. One such programme is Competency-Based Education (CBE) with the emphasis on assessment (competency-based assessment) being seen as key to the success of its implementation (Tillema et al, 2000; Frederiksen, 1984; Baartman et al., 2007). 4.2.1 Purposes of Competence-based Assessment Any forms of assessment s including CBA would usually have one or more of three basic purposes to diagnose learning;, to select students for particular provision; to certificate achievements (Carless et. al., 2006; Freeman Lewis, 1997; Ecclestone, 1996; Rowntree, 1987). CBA has been utilised by schools, training colleges and industriy for two main purposes; to measure competencies (McNerney Briggins, 1995) and to certificate (International Labour Organisation, 1996). 4.2.1.1 CBA for Measuring Competence Measuring competence is one of the main purposes of CBA.Generally, the reason for the implementation of CBA is to determine that learners have sufficient knowledge and skills to contribute effectively to the work force(Canning, 2000; Ecclestone, 1997; Kerka, 1998; LPM, 2002; McNabb, 1997). However,according to Hyland (1994), as competence-based education is found to be seriously flawed and ill-equipped to deal with education and training beyond the basic skills., CBA apparently could can be used to measure limited aspects of competence but Hyland (1994). He believes that its influence on training and education for future generations will be actively damaging as it could can only produce individuals who would function without much learning, knowledge and understanding of anything. He attributes this to a This is due to its highly instrumental philosophy thats combined with a narrow and uncritical behaviourist psychology. (Hyland, 1994). Thus, its qualifications resulting from CBA are viewed as basically reliable as indicators of all the most elementary skills and abilities (Armstrong, 1995). The issues of competence in CBA will be further discussed in section 4.4. 4.2.1.2 CBA for Certification It is asserted claimed that CBA provides learners with opportunities to achieve qualifications that relate to required performance in the workplace (Erridge Perry, 1994). Ecclestone (1997) indicates that NVQs, which primarily employ CBA, represent an explicit commitment to creating wider access to accreditation and better levels of achievement. She argues that Tthis could be made possible by severing links between attendance in learning programmes, and the formal assessment and accreditation of outcomes, and by promoting the accreditation of prior learning in which NVQs subsequently serve as serious challenge to traditional assessment approaches (Ecclestone, 1997). For instance, a trainee in a plumbing courseplumber would have the opportunities to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills in plumbing at certain level. He/she would then achieve the qualifications and certification that relate to the required performance of a plumber in the real life workplace once he/she has complet ed the assessment of at the at particular designated level. Nevertheless, CBA is at the same time, argued to be conceptually confusing, empirically flawed and lacking in meeting the needs of a learning society (Chappell, 1996; Ecclestone, 1997; Hyland, 1994;). This may be the results of the use of confusing language or jargons, the decreasing credibility of the competency standards on how they reflect industry standards (Kerka, 1998) and the indifferent implementation of CBA across the industries due to employers ignorance about the its nature and the purpose. of it (Hyland, 1996). 4.2.2 Definitions and Interpretations of CBA There is a wide range of interpretations and definitions given to CBA. In this discussion, CBA the interpretation of- CBA is looked atinterpreted in terms of three different aspects; the assessors roles, the learners responsibilities and the learning outcomes that are based on predetermined criteria. Figure ____tries to reflect the interedependence of these elements.The relationships of the interpretations of these three aspects are as shown in Figure ____. Adapted: Griffin Nix, 1991; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995; Hager, 1994; Elliot, 1994; Cotton, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996) In the assessors perspective, CBA consists of the simple process of seeing, collecting, gathering,and obtaining evidence, and the further process a more complex as well as subjective process of judging and interpreting the evidence of competence demonstrated by learners (Rowe, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995; Hager, 1994; Griffin Nix, 1991). The assessors have to observe gather and judge the evidence of an individuals competence against the specified standards. This means that the assessors have to be very careful in their actions of gathering evidence of competence and they have to decide when it is considered sufficient, based on their expert judgment. For example, when a student successfully builds a drywall framework, the assessor has to gather evidence of competence not only from the product which is the framework but also from the process and the preparations before the student begins to work on it such as work schedule, list of materials and equipment to be u sed, and the like. The assessor then has to use his/her expertise in this area to determine whether or not the evidence of competence gathered is adequate to say that the student has acquired satisfactory competence in building the drywall framework. McNnerney Briggins (1995) state that CBA is the process of identifying the competencies which are the underlying characteristics that lead toof successful performance be this by may it be among a group of employees, typically by department, job category or hierarchical level. CThey say that a list of competencies that is tied to one corporate culture is usually used tobecome associatede with exemplary performance (McNerney Briggins, 1995)ers. They further relate CBA to its training basis where the focus is on who the successful performers are rather than on what people do. This means that it does not just include training in jobs which rely heavily on psychomotor skills, such as manual labour and traditional hourly production work but also involve performing decision-oriented jobs (Mcnerney Briggins, 1995). The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) (2001) stresses the process of seeing whether or not an individual has the necessary skill and knowledge they need to be awarded a Scottish Vocational Qualifications as the key factor in CBA; emphsising the need for assessors to be expert . This undoubtedly requires the assessors to have even thorough knowledge and skills in the fields they are assessing in order to make good and fair judgments. This means is due to the fact that the athat assessors have to assess and collectconsider evidence of competence in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes (Rowe, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995) displayed diferentially in authentic contexts by learners in the context of a selected set of real life professional tasks which are of different levels (Hager, 1994). The process of gathering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that may be very subjective (Pedd ie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors have to determine whether or not the competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility, then, to decide if learners performances meet the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. Furthermore, assessors have to assess learners ability to apply a particular knowledge, skills, attitudes and values in a specific context according to a required performance standards (New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), 2002). In other words, assessors themselves have to be extremely knowledgeable and skilful in the art of observing and collecting evidence of competence that come in various tangible and intangible forms. The process of gat hering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that is inevitably very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors still have to determine whether or not competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility then, to decide if learners are considered to be competent in a particular context at a particular level based on their performance whether or not it meets the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. In addition to assessing and making judgment on students performance based on evidence gathered, assessors would also have to give constructive and supportive feedback to students on their performance and work (Ecclestone, 1996; Sadler, 2009). The assessors would have to point out the strengths and weaknesses as well as the improvements that could be made in the future (Sadler, 2009). Sadler (2009) further proposes that feedback should be given in a manner that would be able toenables educate students to assess and be able to evaluate their own work and give feedback to themselves as well. He suggests that students shcould be taught to monitor the quality of their productions and make adjustments as necessary while they are actually engaged in doing it. In From the learners point of view on the other handperspective, CBA is the platform for them to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes (Elliot, 1994). These competencies will range from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time in very different contexts.Elliot further asserts that CBA requires learners to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes in performance assessment which vary in terms of simplicity and complexity such as from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time, all of which are then judged . Learners are expected to be deeply involved in the assessment process and they areto be aware of the specified criteria that they have to meet as well as the standards of performance that are expected of them right from the beginning even before the assessment is conducted. Theoretically, tThis allows learners to take charge of and control over their own learning outcomes and success by preparing them selves well in advance. In other words, learners would have the autonomy for in their own learning, as CBA canould promote individuality and personal development (Ecclestone, 1996). The learners responsibility includes demostrating the It is also here in CBA that learners have to show their ability to apply theoretical knowledge and procedures, in addition to their understanding ofbeing able to describe the theories or even point to appropriate theoretical knowledge (Cotton, 1995). In demonstrating competence Cotton further elucidates that learners also have to express wise use of common sense in the public by demonstrating good physical, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills with mindful decision- making; that suggests the multiple intelligence described by Gardner (1985). In other words, learners have to demonstrate their abilities in all the three psychological domains of psychomotor, cognitive and affective learning (ANTA, 1998). Similarly, the Australias National Training Auth ority (ANTA) (1998) considers CBA to be a platform for learners to display their skills, knowledge and experience in accomplishing specific tasks as required in the workplace or to obtain a credit towards a qualification in the vocational and education training (VET). A Both the assessors and learners have one thing in common: to focus on and that is the set of learning outcomes that can be derived from an assessment. Learning outcomes cover diverse range of areas including personal qualities, various forms of knowledge and skills (Ecclestone, 1996). In this case it is the evidence of competence that learners have to demonstrate and which the assessors have to observe for and make judgments on, has to meet specified criteria. Thus, CBA consists of specified set of both the general and specific outcomes that assessors, learners and third parties can make reasonably objective judgments with respect to learners achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes (Wolf, 1995). CBA then certifies learners progress based on the demonstrated achievement of these outcomes while the assessments may not be necessarily tied to time served in formal educational settings. The emphasis is on the outcomes specifically, multiple outcomes, each distinctive and separ ately considered which should be specified clearly and as transparent as possible for assessors, assessees and third parties to understand what is being assessed and what should be achieved (Wolf, 1995) . This definition encapsulates the key-features of CBA as it has been developed and promoted for the vocational, technical and professional education and training in the UK while at the same time it signals the American origins of much of the debate (Wolf, 1995). The demonstrated performance that provides evidence of competence has to be at least of the minimum required quality in the real life workplace environment. These are the predetermined criteria set in CBA which are generally based on endorsed industry benchmark or competency standard (ANTA, 1998). The emphasis on outcomes and transparency is not only peculiar to the competence-context but it is also an essential characteristic of criterion-referenced assessment. The emphasis on what learners can actually do and the beneficia l effects of clear criteria on teaching and learning (Glaser, 1963; Popham, 1978) are argued to meet the competence-based literature where in England in the early years of the implementation of CBA, such system was referred to as criterion-referenced approach (Jessup 1991: 167). Jessup (1991) further underlines that what people actually learn from an education and training system and how effectively, as the key factor to measure its success. Thus, CBA is considered a criterion-referenced interpretation of assessment (Nuttall, 1984; Ling, 1999) where individuals are given an award after achieving the pre-determined standards (Cotton, 1995). This critical attribute of CBA will be discussed further in section 4.3.2. 4.3 Critical Attributes of Competence-based Assessment The following section discusses the two learning theories associated with CBA and the nature of its criterion-referenced assessment. 4.3.1 Learning Theories Associated with Competence-based Assessment Learning in the psychology and education contexts is a the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and values, and world views acquisition and enhancement through ones integrated employment of cognitive, emotional, and experiences (Illeris, 2000; Ormorod, 1995). How this process works is explained variously. Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place and the explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. In other words, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, and they help uncover the inherently complex process of learning to our understanding. Hill (2002) explains that learning theories have two main values. The first is to provide adequate vocabulary and a conceptual framework in to interpreting examples of observed learning; and the second. Next is to suggest the right directions to look for solutions to practical problem instead of providing the solutions. Learning theories are therefore, the basis for any form of educational assessment (Gipps, 1994) and the theories most commonly associated to with CBA are the behaviourism and, more recently, the constructivism. These two theories will be discussed as CBA essentially involves observable aspects of learning and learning as a process for construction of new knowledge. Although the cognitive theory which looks beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning is important, the need for it in CBA is not that apparent or crucial. Thus it is not included in the discussion. 4.3.1.1 Behaviourist Learning Theory Behaviourism is a theory of organism (may it be an animal or human) learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999) with the assumption that a learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997) in the acquisition of new behaviour (Chowdhury, 2006). Learning according to the behaviourists takes place as the result of a response that follows on a specific stimulus and that behaviour is shaped through reinforcement (Kerka, 1997). By repeating the Stimulus-Response (S-R) cycle the learner is conditioned into repeating the response whenever the same stimulus is present and thusbehaviour can be modified and learning is measured by observable change in behaviour (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999). Theis emphasis on stimulus-response pairing (Murphy, 1999; Chowdhury, 2006) and the rejections to of structuralism (Kerka, 1997) reflected behaviourisms positivistic philosophical base, as the analysis of the human condition relies on only verifiable observations of behaviour and not on untenable mentalistic constructs (Kerka, 1997). Furthermore,Accordingly most human behaviour could can be understood as basic reflexive learning mechanisms or laws that operate on ones experience within the environment (Kerka, 1997). As the approach is seen to be more operational and practical in nature, it has dominated education.n, in which Tthe teacher disseminates selected knowledge, measures learners passive reception of facts, and focuses on behaviour control and task completion (Kerka, 1997). These views of the behaviourists and the learning characteristics that can be found in the education setting are summarised in Table___. Generally, conditioning has been identified in experiments by behaviourists to be a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural pattern: Classic conditioning occurs when an instinctive reaction responds to a stimulus (Comer, 2004). Essentially, animals and people are biologically wired so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. As such, learning process takes place when two events that repeatedly occur close together in time are associated in a persons mind to impulsively produce the same response. The most popular example is Pavlovs observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food where food is unconditioned stimulus and the salivation, the unconditioned reflex (Comer, 2004; Chowdhury, 2006). Pavlovs theory of classical conditioning is considered a foundation of learning theories to the behaviourists. According to Pavlovs experiment, when some neutral stimulus, such as the ringing of a bell, is combined with the presentation of food and is repeated for a period of time, the dog salivates with the ringing of the bell, even though food is not given. Hence, the ringing of the bell acts as the conditioned stimulus while salivation is the conditioned response or reflex (Dembo: 1994). The result of this experiment led to the formation of Pavlovs classical conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would ordinarily produce such a response. Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a response to a stimulus is rewarded or reinforced, then the response is likely to take place in the future. Similarly, when a particular behaviour is rewarded, that behaviour is repeated as shown in the experiment conducted by B.F. Skinner using reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball. B.F. Skinner based his theory upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour where these changes in behaviour are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment (Chowdhury, 2006). According to Skinner, a reward or punishment will either strengthen or weaken a voluntary or automatic behaviour (Skinner: 1968). Ever since its introduction, the reinforced techniques have gone through series of enhancement and have contributed tremendously in training and teaching. The most important aspect of Skinners contribution to training is the significance attached to the desired behaviour to be emitted in certain environment. In order for the trainer to ensure the right behaviour is reinforced in the trainees, the trainer should have the clear idea about the terminal behaviour of the trainees, and should closely follow the trainees to appropriately reinforce correct responses. This is the purpose of programmed instructions including competence-based training in its early years of implementation which was based on this theory of reinforcement (Burns, 1995). . As the emerging learning theory of the early 1900s, behaviourism provided the final found ation for social efficiency as learning which is seen objectively consists of the formation of links between specific stimuli and responses through the application of rewards ( Wirth, 1972 ). The emphasis on the need of objectivity leads to extensive use of statistical and ma thematical analysis. Despite all the remarkable contribution s the learning theory has to offer , the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role the mind play in shaping ones behaviour. Men are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. Thus, the behaviourist theory of learning is lacking in utilizing the full potential of the mind in moulding essential behaviour and in constructing new knowledge . Assessment in Behaviourism Assessment, according to behaviourism, is a test (the stimulus) for which the answer (the response) is conditioned In accordance to the behaviourist learning theory which focuses on the stimulus-response cycle to attain observable conditioned behaviour, assessment in the behaviourism also applies the same concept. Thus, t he test item is the stimulus, the answer is the response and a learner has to be conditioned to produce the appropriate response to any given stimulus ( (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999). NSince the emphasis is on the response that is observable, no attention is paid to any model of the thinking process of the learner which might intervene between stimulus and response. Consequently, the distinctions between rote learning and learning with understanding is not considered as teaching is a matter deliveringof delivering the appropriate stimuli while learning is a matter of repeating the appropriate response, which will be rewarded. is what matters the most in which teaching is by repetition and then rewarding the appropriate responses. As such, a test composed of many short, atomised, out-of-context questions, and teaching to the test, are both consistent with this approach (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997). Likewise, some forms of CBA which has always been associated to thewith behaviourist theory can be seen to assess, atomistically. applied the atomistic but not out of context approach. The assessor who is an observer ticks off a checklist of predetermined criteria whenever a learner has performed a series of discrete observable tasks. The criteria are the stimuli, the accomplished tasks the responses and learner has to be conditioned to demonstrate the ability to meet the criteria successfully. Although this approach to assessment may developstestify to learners ability to perform observable tasksbehaviours, it does not pay much attention to the theoretical knowledge and understanding (Ashworth, 1992) as the role of the mind is considered insignificant in delivering the required behaviour. While assessing competent observable performance is vital, assessing knowledge and understanding is just as important as it is an essential aspect of competence without which an assessment is lacking in credibility or construct validity (Ashworth, 1992). A valid assessment method should be able to measure what it is supposed to measure which in this case (Watson, 1994). Given the extensive discussion in Chapter ? on the idea of competence, both the observable performance behaviour and underpinning knowledge are aspects of competence that should be assessed and measured. People who understand are those who have clear mental representation of the situation with which they are confronted and are able to deal with it creatively and imaginatively using the acquired knowledge which acts as an interpretive resource for them (Ashworth, 1992). Thus, it is insufficient to assess ones competence just by looking at the performance while ignoring the aspect of knowledge and understanding. It is unfortunate then, if such an assessment method should produce people who are like robots in a factory; they couldwho can perform a job or a task efficiently and effectively but they do not have any understanding of what they were are doing. As the approachCBA also emphasises personal competence within competence concentrates on an individual demonstrating competent performance ((Wolf, 1995), traditional notions of CBA have allowed an and emphasises on personal competences, it leads to one being individualistic perspective whilst lacking ignoring the very necessary in the abability of being able to work as a team player to work as a team whereas team work is essential in performing relevan t aspect of a job in the actual workplace (Ashworth, 1992). As a result, theis behaviourist view of CBA has eventually shifted to the constructivist belief as discussed in the following section.weakened. Despite all the remarkable contributions the learning theory has to offer, the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role that the mind plays in influencing ones behaviour. People are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. 4.3.1.2 Constructivist Learning Theory Constructivism is a theory of learning that has roots in both philosophy and psychology (Doolitle Camp, 1999) founded on the premise that learners actively construct their own knowledge, meaning and understanding of the world they live in by reflecting on their experiences (Doolitle Camp, 1999; Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997). Learners learn by doing rather than observing and by bringing prior knowledge into a learning situation (Epstein Ryan, 2002; Carvin, date?) in which they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it until they can demonstrate their comprehension of the subject (Carvin). Furthermore, learners need to analyse and transform new information or problems in their minds based on existing knowledge and understanding where these abstract thoughts evolve from concrete action (Murphy, 1999). Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting their mental models to accommodate new experiences. TBasically, the theory of constructivism rests on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world by building cognitive structures which include declarative knowledge (know that facts, concepts, propositions) and procedural knowledge (know how techniques, skills, and abilities) (Murphy, 1999). These two components of knowledge have been discussed in depth in Chapter 3. Moreover, learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation which takes place within the social context and is of useful to the learner as intrinsic motivation emerges from the desire to understand and to construct meaning (Billet, 1996). However, dispositions such as attitudes, values and interests that help learners decide, are often neglected in this theory (Murphy, 1999) making it incomprehensive and insufficient in a way. Philosophically, the essence of constructivism relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism and relativism, where personally unique reality resulted from the concept that reality can be known through experience although it may exist separate from experience (Doolitle Camp, 1999). Hence came four essential epistemological tenets of constructivism (Von Glasersfeld ,1984; 1998; Doolitle Camp, 1999); Knowledge is the result of active cognizing by the individual ; Cognition is an adaptive process that functions to make an individuals behaviour more viable given a particular environment; Cognition organizes and makes sense of ones experience, and is not a process to render an accurate representation of reality; and Knowing has roots both in biological/neurological construction, and in social, cultural, and language-based interactions (Dewey, 1916/1980; Garrison, 1997; Larochelle, Bednarz, Garrison, 1998; Gergen, 1995). Thus, constructivism acknowledges the active role learners play in the personal creation of knowledge, the importance of both the individual and social experiences in this knowledge creatio